Paper offerings; courtesy of Angela Sim

Angela Sim depicts the ritual enactment of Mulian’s life performed every ten years by Singapore’s Chinese diaspora.

The concept of the universal soul salvation evokes a powerful vision of spiritual evolution unfolding over time. It weaves together themes of temporal cycles, collective destiny, and the soul’s transformative journey. Interpreted variously, it may represent a divine blueprint guiding all beings toward salvation, a slow but steady path of enlightenment, or a profound expression of the intrinsic unity shared by all souls across the cosmos.

Families seeking to aid the spiritual well-being of their deceased loved ones engage in this ritual on their behalf, aiming to support their journey in the afterlife. Simultaneously, the universal soul salvation ritual extends compassion to wandering or neglected souls who lack living relatives to tend to their spiritual needs, thereby offering them a chance at salvation and redemption. Devotees come together in collective prayers and chants, reinforcing communal bonds and a shared commitment to spiritual upliftment and transcendence.

One such community that still practices this decennial ritual dating back to the Japanese Occupation is the Henghwa temple in Singapore. The Henghua people (also spelled Henghwa or Xinghua, 兴化人) constitute a distinct subgroup within Singapore’s Chinese diaspora, tracing their ancestral origins to Putian 莆田 in China’s Fujian province. Kiew Lee Tong 九鲤洞, meaning “nine carp cave”, stages the decennial salvation of souls ritual 逢甲大普度 religiously to this day.

In the aftermath of Singapore’s fall during World War II, the Sook Ching operation resulted in the mass execution of Chinese men suspected of harbouring anti-Japanese sentiments. Local folklore holds that the spirits of these victims, having suffered unjust and violent deaths, may be condemned to roam restlessly in the afterlife. To offer solace and facilitate their spiritual passage, rituals involving food offerings and prayers are performed. The first known ceremony of this kind was organised by Kiew Lee Tong in 1944, marking a solemn act of remembrance and a collective appeal for the peace of the departed. Conducted over three days, the ritual features Taoist priests, spirit mediums, planchette fuji 扶乩 writing, as well as Buddhist monks performing rites and chants intended to guide these unsettled souls toward transcendence and repose.

This decennial event coincides with “Hungry Ghost Month”, observed during the seventh month of the Chinese calendar. I was in Singapore in August 2024 to witness this solemn and hauntingly elaborate ritual firsthand. An overwhelming sense of yin 阴 energy—marked by stillness, solemnity, and spiritual heaviness—was immediately palpable as I stepped through the temple gates.

In the weeks leading up to the start of the seventh lunar month, the Immortal Chen Zhangzhe 持教善德陈长者 is invoked in the form of fuji, assuming the role of spiritual overseer for the ritual proceedings. Under his guidance, the solemn raising of the ritual banner 立幡is conducted with reverence. Using ink and consecrated cinnabar, he sanctifies the sacred implements and talismans, thereby preparing the ritual space for the formal invitation of spirits to this event.

A towering wooden flagstaff, exceeding 36 feet in height, is erected, serving as a spiritual beacon to summon wandering souls to the temple grounds in anticipation of salvation. Symbolically bridging heaven, earth, and the underworld, the flagstaff establishes a sacred axis for divine communication and redemptive passage. The act of lighting the lantern at its peak functions as both a public declaration and a divine signal that the universal salvation ritual has officially begun.

Atop the flagstaff rests a ritual ensemble comprising a streamer, a paper crane, and a lantern shielded by a traditional bamboo rain hat Yuli 雨笠. The paper crane, regarded in many traditions as a celestial envoy, signifies the guidance of souls from the mortal realm toward transcendence. Its presence encapsulates the central aim of the ritual: to assist the dead—particularly the forgotten or unclaimed—in ascending to the Western Paradise 西方极乐世界 or returning to ancestral domains.

Paper effigies of underworld deities were arranged, and toys were scattered on the ground to offer comfort to the souls of deceased children.

Along the thoroughfare leading to the temple, “Six Paths for Ghosts” lanterns guiludeng 鬼路灯were also installed, each mounted on a wooden pole approximately two metres in height. Like the main ritual lantern, these were sheltered beneath traditional bamboo rain hats, yuli 雨笠, symbolically lighting the way for wandering spirits as they journey through the six realms of existence. Outside the main gates of the temple, a temporary refuge was erected for ‘lonely spirits.” Paper effigies of underworld deities were arranged, and toys were scattered on the ground to offer comfort to the souls of deceased children. Additional offerings were laid out for wandering spirits, ensuring that no soul was overlooked. Throughout the event, both Taoist and Buddhist priests alternated in chanting within the confines, their prayers resonating to guide the spirits on their journey.

Multiple rituals are conducted simultaneously in the open space directly in front of the temple. As devotees enter through the main gates, they are greeted by temporary altars set up on trestle tables to the right, adorned with ancestral offerings. Prayers and blessings are bestowed upon all the theatre actors as well as the director of the play. The members of the strictly male performance troupe “calls upon the Gods” to preside over them, and special talismans are given to the respective actors, which are placed inside their wigs or on other parts of their bodies. All devotees, including myself, upon entry into the sacred space, must adorn our wrists with a special talisman during the whole duration of this three-day event.

To the left, a large stage is prepared for the ritual Chinese theatre, Mulian Jiu Mu 目连救母, which is the highlight of this 3-day event. On the final day of the performance, this stage is repurposed into a grand ritual altar dedicated to the universal salvation of souls in purgatory.

Mulian, a filial son originally named Fu Luobo 傅罗卜, is renowned for his deep respect and devotion toward his parents. During a period of absence while Mulian was away on business, his mother, Madam Liu Qingti, ordered the destruction of bridges and temples and instructed her servant to offer dog meat buns to monks. Because of her transgressions, she was condemned to an untimely death and cast into the deepest and most torturous level of hell.

Upon learning of his mother’s fate, Mulian was stricken with grief. In response, he renounced secular life and was ordained as a Buddhist monk. Empowered by the Buddha with sacred tools and spiritual insight, Mulian descended into the infernal realms to search for and rescue his mother. After traversing the multiple layers of hell and witnessing the torments suffered by condemned souls, Mulian breaks open the gates of hell with his staff. Touched by his unwavering filial piety, Lord Buddha instructs Mulian to offer benevolent donations, dana, to monks. Through the merit accrued from this selfless act, Mulian‘s mother is ultimately released from her karmic punishment, which had included reincarnation as a hungry ghost and, at one point, as a dog.

This narrative is rooted in early Buddhist scriptures, most notably the Yulanpen Sutra 盂兰盆经, which was translated into Chinese around the 3rd century CE. Through the efficacious merit generated by this potent ritual of universal salvation, she was ultimately released from her torments and granted rebirth in the human realm.

Unlike conventional theatrical productions, the ritual theatre at Kiew Lee Tong transcends mere entertainment for the living and, in this case, the dead. It functions as a profound religious ritual that channels divine power, grants salvation, and fortifies the connection between the community, its ancestors, and its spiritual heritage. It is both a sacred rite and a form of communal theatre, safeguarding centuries of Henghwa religious tradition.

The decennial event commenced with a grand procession, featuring deities and symbolic figures that set the tone for the sacred atmosphere of the ritual. Preparations began early, with an essential cleansing and blessing ceremony held at 0800 hrs to mark the start of the day’s proceedings. Prior to this, Taoist priests and Buddhist monks had already gathered at their respective altars by 0700 hrs to perform the morning rituals.

Portraying Mulian on stage is a role of great spiritual significance. The actor must learn and master the mantras integral to the universal salvation rites. The props associated with Mulian are treated with the utmost reverence, undergoing consecration through planchette writing, the application of talismans, and chanting led by Buddhist monks. Mulian is depicted wielding a six-ring staff, Jiuxi lianhuan zhang 九锡連環杖, with the six rings symbolising the beings across the six realms of existence. Crucially, the staff is considered a sacred ritual tool, not merely a theatrical prop.

During the performance, offerings were made to appease wandering souls, keeping with the ritual’s overarching aim of spiritual salvation. A distinctive feature of the Henghwa tradition is the unique arrangement of these offerings, known as “orphan plate” or gupan 孤盘. Unlike standard ancestral offerings, which are often placed in sets and arranged for known family spirits, gupan are specially prepared for wandering, unclaimed, or forgotten souls—those without descendants to make offerings on their behalf. It reflects the community’s deep-rooted concern for the spiritually neglected and reinforces the ritual’s compassionate intent. The items are carefully assembled with a sense of dignity and completeness, symbolising care and respect for the deceased as though they were part of one’s own family. Placed in circular trays and scattered throughout the ritual space, gupan offerings serve not only as sustenance but also as an invitation, drawing lonely spirits to the site of the ritual and allowing them to partake in the collective salvation rites.

In addition to vegetarian food offerings, each gupan tray in this ritual includes three humble yet deeply meaningful items, reflecting the Henghwa community’s empathy for the plight of wandering souls:

• KOLI PUAY – a handwoven pouch filled with rice and preserved radish, symbolising a simple, sustaining meal for the spirits on their journey.
• HO-LI 斗笠 – a straw rain hat or raincoat, offering shelter and protection as the soul traverses the uncertain terrain of the afterlife.
• CAO-A 草鞋 – a pair of straw sandals, signifying the means to walk safely through the spiritual realms.

A total of 12 trays are arranged for this pushi 普施 ritual:one for each month of the lunar calendar. In leap years, a 13th tray is added, ensuring no time or soul is overlooked. Each tray is set with vegetarian fare like rice, tea, firm tofu tau kwa, vegetables, peanuts, soya beans, a packet of vermicelli mee sua and an orange, from the outset, consistent with the ritual’s emphasis on compassion and non-violence. Ten pairs of chopsticks accompany the offerings, representing the ten directions 十方 and the countless solitary souls幽孤believed to exist without kin or proper rites. The straw items — no longer commonly used in everyday life — were specially acquired for this rare decennial event, a quiet act of reverence and commitment to ritual detail. The tiny steamed buns pudu bao普度包, once homemade with care by members of the community, are today sourced from Putian, China, re-establishing a living link with ancestral origins and culinary memory.

Also placed on the offering trays are two unusual but deeply symbolic items, both rooted in the Henghwa community’s thoughtful care for the suffering of the unseen. One is a starch paste made by mixing dried starch powder with cold water to create a smooth, glue-like consistency. This is offered as a kind of spiritual salve — intended to help wandering souls “heal” themselves, especially those who may have suffered violent or accidental deaths resulting in broken limbs or bodily trauma.

“If they passed in pain, we want to help soothe them,” explained one temple helper. “Even if we can’t see them, we imagine what they might need.”

The other item is known in the Henghwa dialect as cha hon 擦粉, a soft, porridge-like preparation made from mee sua 面线, or wheat noodles, cooked until it reaches a thick, starchy consistency. It resembles a kind of viscous soup and is believed to be especially helpful for souls with difficulty swallowing solid food.

“These are not ordinary dishes,” another elder explained. “They are made for those who are forgotten, or who cannot speak for themselves. We imagine their pain, and we try to feed and comfort them.”

Day 1: Opening the Altar and Inviting the Spirits 开坛、请灵

• Establishing the sacred space: 开坛:Ritual masters (Taoist, Buddhist monks, or specially trained lay priests) purify the ground using incense, water, and talismans.They “erect” the altar 搭台立坛 — a grand structure decorated with paintings of heaven and hell, lanterns, and paper effigies.
• The altar becomes a cosmic crossroad linking the living, the dead, and the divine.
• “Summoning the spirits” 请灵:Special chants invite hungry ghosts, wandering souls, and deities to descend to the site. This includes a solemn procession with flags, banners, and percussion to symbolically “open the gate of the netherworld” 开幽门.
• Initial offerings of food, incense, candles, and spirit money are tossed into the air to placate any angry or restless souls.
• The first act of Mulian目莲戏commences.

Day 2: Mulian’s Journey Through Hell 目莲救母、游地狱

• Continuation of rituals:
  • Food offerings are renewed. Incense and candles are lit, and spirit money is tossed into the air to placate angry or restless souls.
  • Additional petitions are made to deities like Di Zang Wang 地藏王菩萨 — the Bodhisattva of the Underworld.
  • Summoning the spirits” 请灵:Special chants invite hungry ghosts, wandering souls to descend to the site.
• A more intimate prayer session may occur early in the day, involving family offerings.
• Major segments of the Mulian ritual theatre performed:
  • Mulian journeys into the Ten Courts of Hell.
  • He witnesses horrifying punishments — sinners being sawed, boiled, crushed.
  • He pleads with the underworld judge for mercy, but realises that only immense merit and repentance can free souls.
• He finds his mother suffering terribly.
• The tone of the day is heavier, darker, and increases in emotional intensity as the day progresses.

Day 3: Mulian’s transformation and climax of breaking hell’s gate.

The 3rd day begins with Mulian’s transformation, mulian tuohua目連脱化. At the central Buddhist altar, the actor who plays Mulian first appears in the role of a sheng (a traditional male character in Chinese opera). In a carefully choreographed sequence, he solemnly removed his headgear and costume, marking a transition from theatrical performer to ritual medium. The transformation of the character from layman to saint is marked not only by a striking visual shift—symbolised by the ritual shaving of his “three thousand strands of hair” and the donning of monastic robes—but also by a profound internal metamorphosis. Nearby, a ceremonial nine-lotus lantern, jiuliandeng 九蓮燈, is raised, symbolising spiritual awakening and divine presence. A temple assistant received the removed sheng attire on a tray, treating it with ritual care.

On this day, families of the deceased are involved as well as actors portraying male and female spirits kneeling on stage to receive salvation. In a central role, the figure of Mulian writes talismans inscribed with the character po破, meaning “break” while chanting sacred mantras. Lastly, the Ritual for the Souls of the Blood Lake xuehu fahui血湖法會 is also performed. The Blood Lake, a metaphysical realm of suffering, is often associated with suffering souls believed to be trapped in a realm traditionally reserved for those who died during childbirth, miscarriage, abortion, or menstruation or under traumatic circumstances. This cycle of invocation and release is repeated continuously over three hours, as temple staff assist by calling out each name, both those of the deceased represented by living relatives and those of unclaimed, wandering spirits. This repetition ensures no soul is forgotten: every name called, every spirit summoned, is symbolically uplifted through chanting, talismanic action, and collective merit-making. The ritual embodies the ethos of universal salvation, extending compassion not only to known ancestors but to the most marginalised and neglected dead.

Continuation of rituals

• • Food offerings are renewed. Incense and candles are lit, spirit money are tossed into the air to placate any angry or restless souls.
  • Summoning the spirits” 请灵:Special chants invite hungry ghosts, wandering souls to descend to the site.
  • Mulian finally saves his mother.
  • She is cleansed of her sins and reborn in a heavenly realm.

The climax of the Mulian ritual theatre takes place on the third day of the ceremony — the 15th day of the seventh lunar month — when Dua Di Ya Pek makes a dramatic appearance. In a charged and often theatrical moment, the deity bursts forth from the ritual stage and through the main gates of Kiew Lee Tong and onto the streets, accompanied by hell guards, diyuguishi地獄鬼使, who are elaborately costumed to represent the formidable enforcers of the underworld. Their exaggerated, frantic movements create a striking contrast to the solemnity of the ritual that follows.

This pivotal scene marks a ritual and narrative shift: from disorder and turmoil in the spirit realm to the beginnings of divine intervention and spiritual resolution. The appearance of the underworld officials, who symbolically “round up” the wandering souls, serves a crucial purpose — ensuring that no spirit, no matter how lost or forgotten, is excluded from the ritual. This act serves as the final sweep of the spirit world, gathering those who may still linger outside the ritual boundary so they, too, may receive offerings and be led toward peace.

The performance is rather frightening, reflecting the tension between fear, redemption, and ritual order. As the ritual reaches its crescendo, this scene marks the transition from chaos to closure — a symbolic assurance that every soul, seen or unseen, is accounted for and uplifted. The ritual theatre concludes with a solemn stage-cleansing rite led by the Goddess of Mercy, 观音菩萨, whose presence sanctifies and purifies the performance space. This final act not only signifies the closure of the sacred drama but also ritually dispels residual defilements, ensuring that the spiritual and physical realms are restored to balance.

Following the completion of the salvation rites, a send-off ritual song ling送靈,is performed to respectfully return the spirits to their respective realms. This crucial closing act is symbolically enacted through the burning of a large, intricately crafted paper boat, often adorned with inscriptions of ancestral names and paper offerings. The boat serves as a spiritual vehicle, guiding the souls onward to their destined places in peace and order. Through this ritual, the community ensures that the dead are not only fed and comforted but also respectfully dispatched, bringing closure to the rites and reaffirming the bond between the living and the departed.

Thanks to Jia Wei Lee and Edmund Lau for the photographs.

References

郑莉. 2021. 神明的旅行: 从兴化到南洋的文化网络. 福建人民出版社, 2021.

SOK KIANG YEE 余淑娟. 2010. “新加坡九鲤洞的目连戏: 中国宗教仪式剧个案研究 = the Mulian Play in Singapore Kiew Lee Tong Temple. A Case Study of Chinese Ritual Theatre.” Thesis

About Angela Sim

Angela Sim is an Australia-based researcher of Asian heritage and culture. She uses her platform as a media content creator to explore areas such as folk religion, Peranakan culture, and sunset industries including Chinese woodblock printing, effigy restoration, and lantern making, to name a few. Watch youtube.com/@HakkaMoi

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Angela Sim | Buddhism | China | G39 | Singapore