The mask of an asura. Wikimedia Commons
Aishani Gupta writes about the fearsome masks of Assam, a tradition passed down for five centuries.
As you step into the airport in Guwahati, in northeastern India, you are greeted with a wall of larger-than-life masks of human and chimeric creatures. They originate in Majuli, the world’s largest riverine island, on the Brahmaputra, where a mask-making tradition dating back nearly five centuries thrives. It is associated with a theatrical performance known as Bhaona, and together, these living traditions have been instrumental in the spread and sustenance of Hindu Vaishanava beliefs and culture across the Assam region. Bhaona can be traced to the sixteenth-century arrival of the saint, poet and social reformer Srimanta Sankardeva (d. 1568) on Majuli.
A mask of Jatayu, ‘the king of birds,’ from the Samaguri Satra of Majuli, Assam. Wikimedia Commons
In the early years of the sixteenth century, the region of present-day Assam experienced significant political flux, with the newly established Ahoms fighting rival Koch, Afghan and Bara Bhuyan chiefs, as well as several tribal groups — all of whom practised diverse worship rituals. In a society heavily fragmented along caste and kinship lines, Sankardeva rose to prominence with his preachings of bhakti (devotion) and equality among people, converting large populations to the Hindu Vaishnava faith, irrespective of their caste, class, religion or family ties. Sankardeva’s teachings can be linked to the pan-Indian Bhakti movement of the 15th and 16th centuries, which challenged Vedic rituals and systems, and empowered people to reach and commune with God directly, without needing upper-caste Brahmin intermediaries. Today known as neo-Vaishnavism, this religious movement altered the course of Assam’s history through the early modern period.
A handmade mask from the Samaguri Satra of Majuli, Assam. Masks are traditionally made using soil, dung, paint and bamboo. Wikimedia Commons.
Sankardeva’s bhakti philosophy upheld the supremacy of Krishna (an incarnation of the major Hindu god Vishnu, from where the word ‘Vaishnava’ derives) above all deities. He adapted many Puranic and religious texts to the local languages, so that people could access them. To familiarise locals with the Bhagavata Purana, which narrates the life of Krishna, and also to build a strong sense of community, he established two types of religious institutions — namghars and sattras. Sattras were monasteries which served as centres of religious instruction and residences of Vaishnava ascetics. Today, there are over 800 sattras across Assam, with Majuli being the epicentre of Sankardeva’s Vaishnavism. Namghars were congregation halls where borgeet (devotional chanting and music), prayers and theatrical performances, including Bhaona, took place. Another performance tradition, the Sattriya dance, was also conceived by Sankardeva and performed in the sattras and namghars.
Masks are an important element of Ankiya Nat Bhaona, a one-act play that Sankardeva is believed to have created. Originally performed through the night, Ankiya Bhaona performances now run for a mere few hours. The plays depict stories from Hindu epics and mythologies — Mahabharata, Ramayana and Bhagavat Purana — with the masks dramatising their tales and characters. Two categories of masks have been predominant in the Bhaona tradition, and are based on the characters that populate these tales: loukik (worldly) figures, including humans and animals, and aloukik (otherworldly) figures, including demons, demigods and zoomorphs. The Hindu trinity of gods, Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva, are commonly represented in aloukik masks, along with other deities, demigods, vahanas (mounts of deities), and avatars of Vishnu. These figures include Ganesha, Hanuman, Garuda, Jatayu, Narasimha and Kaliya Naag. Demons and other evil beings also find representation in aloukik masks, and these include figures such as Ravana, Taraka, Maricha and Bakasura.
The bamboo skeleton of a Majuli mask. Wikimedia Commons.
Aloukik masks allegorise the character traits of supernatural, divine figures in popular acts like Kaliya-damana (the tale of young Krishna killing Kaliya Naag), Raas Leela (Krishna’s dalliance with the milkmaids or gopis) and Rama-vijaya-nat (Rama’s victory over evil). In the early days, these plays were particularly useful for proselytisation because many new converts to Vaishnavism were unaware of Vaishnava philosophy and mythologies. Over centuries, namghar audiences learnt about Puranic protagonists through the ferociousness, grace and even coyness displayed and exaggerated by these masks, and their enhanced facial features — especially the grotesque eyes and elongated teeth. Evoking fear, awe, devotion and chagrin, these masks instruct onlookers in good, evil, morality and immorality. Some scholars have observed that aloukik masks manifest many facial expressions which are otherwise censured in Assamese society. As such, they become important cultural safety-valves, regulating the community’s feelings of desire, power, disdain and reverence.
A supernatural being from the Samaguri Satra of Majuli, Assam. Wikimedia Commons.
Bhaona masks are made in three sizes — the mukha (covering just the face), the lutukai (covering the face and chest) and the bor-mukha (a two-part mask that covers both the head and body). The lutukai and bor-mukha masks are assembled with hinges and joints that allow movement. The mask-making process uses locally available materials, including bamboo, wood, cloth, clay and cow dung, which have ensured the survival and continuity of this craft over generations. Frames are first crafted out of bamboo, and the final shapes are contoured using cloth, clay and cow dung. The surfaces of the finished masks are then smoothened using a bamboo file, and the details are painted using various vegetable dyes such as hengul (vermilion) and hetul (arsenic). Contemporary mask-makers have begun to turn to synthetic paints for their bright colours.
A mask at Majuli, Assam. Wikimedia Commons. The half-body of a demon from the Samaguri Satra of Majuli, Assam. Wikimedia Commons.
The masks are also believed to be animate, possessing the same sanctity as worshipped beings. Aloukik masks are sacred objects, crafted and handled with great care, because they embody timeless wisdom and universal experiences of sorrow, fear, life and death. The masks are also believed to be animate, possessing the same sanctity as worshipped beings, because Bhaona is a devotional ritual in itself. When moulding the masks of gods and demons, particularly Vishnu and his avatars, khanikars (mask-makers) carefully refer to scriptural descriptions, ensuring that the art highlights the deities’ cosmic might. Some khanikars are also hereditary performers of the Ankiya Bhaona, involved in the direction and promotion of this age-old performance. They believe that aloukik masks of ferocious demons and evil spirits are prone to quarrelling when kept in the dark. To propitiate them, the masks are placed in the namghar before and after every performance, worshipped with incense, prayers and chants. Once made, the masks are used for years, until they are worn out by insect damage or weather, in which case new ones are crafted while the old ones are ceremonially immersed in a nearby river or lake. Stories of supposed mishaps caused by disrespect towards these aloukik masks abound in the villages around Majuli.
Today, aloukik masks are regularly made in the upper regions of Assam, in places such as Jorhat and Sivasagar. But Majuli’s Notun Samaguri sattra remains a major hub of their production since it was founded by the Ahom king Chakradhwaj Singha in c. 1663 CE. Its present head, Hemchandra Goswami, claims descent from the original Goswami khanikars of the region. With a background in fine arts, Goswami has enriched the craft with meticulous relief work and chiaroscuro painting, adding depth and character to these sacred objects. Today, known as a master mask-maker, he has been instrumental in preserving and translating the intangible heritage of Majuli’s masks for a global audience. Five of his aloukik creations — Kalinaga (the serpent demon), Garuda (the mythological bird, vehicle of Vishnu), Putana (the sister of demon king Ravana), Bakasura (the demon, who looks like a stork) and Chakrabata (the demon of cyclone) — are now a part of the British Museum’s permanent collection.
From their humble beginnings in rural Vaishnavism to a highly regarded art form today, these otherworldly masks and figures continue to remain deeply entrenched in the cultural, ritual and religious lives of Vaishnava devotees across Assam.
About Aishani Gupta
Aishani (she/her) holds a PhD in History from SUNY Stony Brook, where she researched South Asian religions, art and architecture, the British Empire, and colonial and postcolonial urban spaces. She is the recipient of Charles Wallace India Trust Grant and Royal Historical Society’s Research Support Award for her research in the UK. At the MAP Academy, she works as a copywriter on various research and outreach projects. She is based in Kolkata. Email: aishani.gupta@map-india.org.
About the MAP Academy
The MAP Academy is an open-access resource focused on the art and cultural histories of South Asia.
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